Video and Q&A: Other Power III – “Other Power” in Tibetan, Chinese, Korean, and Japanese Buddhism

This is like my doctoral exam here. There is a connection between the Jagannatha cult that was brought to Nepal by the Malla Kings in the 17th, 18th century. There are some images and influences but no one has ever explored them, and I haven’t had graduate students, so I have never been able to send people off to discover the answer to some of these questions. And the second question: To my great sorrow at times, there is such a pluralism of Buddhist traditions and practices, that yes, Yamāntaka is there in the paintings, but the protector of Buddhist Monasteries in Nepal is Mahākāla and not Yamāntaka. The other protector is Ganesh. The gods are all Buddhist in the Buddhist Imagination–they’re just worshippers of the Buddha. But Mañjuśrī certainly is a kind of ancestral founder of Newar civilization. He comes and drains the lake that was once the Kathmandu Valley and then teaches the people who follow him to cultivate the land, etc. Yamāntaka is there, but only, I think, in Esoteric practices. – Prof. Todd Lewis

I think the primary is the sound. What I don’t know about—because I haven’t studied it or entered into the circle of initiation—is how tantric initiations scale them. That I am not sure about. So, relevant categories here are body, speech, and mind: I always tell my students to try to think through the categories of the tradition. And these categories are fruitful areas to ask questions, and to find answers.

Another thing in this question of other power. Tantric practitioners (‘vajrācārya’), such as those who practice the Mañjuśrīmūlakalpa (an early tantra that was later greatly elaborated), in Nepal, in Indic tradition, as well as lamas (a term that means tantric teacher, though it is mushed and used all over the place to mean almost any monk)—tantric practitioners believe that through body, speech, and mind, the mantras can pull the presence of the buddhas or bodhisattvas into their bodies, or into a vessel in front of them (such as a kalasha or water vessel). They believe they can compel them like the Vedic gods could be compelled to sit by and take the fire offerings in the fire sacrifice (homa).

The other power represented by buddhas or bodhisattvas is pulled close, made immanent right where the ritual is taking place. That real power to bring the gods down. These tantric practitioners use mudras (body), mantras (speech), and visualizations (mind) from the texts to say ‘do this’. And then, by having the buddhas or bodhisattvas present, they can then be petitioned for help. Of course, the high-level help is to have an enlightened presence in your stream of consciousness. That’s a transformative practice that calms the mind and discerns the real. That’s the way you do it. So, to me, what you all are working on in terms of other power is a very fruitful way of understanding this tradition and relating it to the larger scope of Mahayana Buddhist development. – Prof. Todd Lewis

I know more about Taixu than I do about Yinshun. I think the questioner probably knows I just recently published translation of Taixu’s “On the Establishment of the Pure Land in the Human Realm.” Taixu is much more of a traditionalist than we like to think he is, and even though he talks about founding the Pure Land in the human realm, he does not abrogate traditional Buddhist practices or goals. What Taixu says is that self power and other power work together. That’s been standard Chinese thought for quite a long time. They’re synergistic. The only mistake you can make is to rely on self power alone, thinking that by paddling your own canoe, you’ll make it all the way across the Pacific Ocean.

Taixu, in particular, saw the good that you can do in this world (self power) as actually preparing you for rebirth in the Pure Land, that you could get a higher-level rebirth there, according to the levels of the Contemplation Sutra. What he objected to was what he called the pessimism of some people and the optimism of others. The pessimists think this world is just a wreck and that there is nothing you can do for it, so let’s just escape to the Pure Land. The optimists think we can put together a Utopia in this world all on our own and make everything hunky-dory for everybody. In contrast, Taixu said the realistic thing to do is call on the power of buddhas to uphold you and to do what you can. For Taixu, doing as much good as you can do in this world activates the power of sympathetic resonance with the compassionate mind of Amitabha and solidifies your connection with him, making your rebirth in his Pure Land much more likely. Yinshun has a more dour view on all this. I would refer you to the writings of my friend, Stefania Travagnin, who’s spent a lot of time actually in his presence and has published on his work. I haven’t dealt deeply into him, as far as that goes. – Prof. Charles B. Jones

“Elegant reward” is not a very common term that Wŏnhyo uses. Typically, he refers to “fruition rewards,” and kind of the typical things. What’s interesting is that I coined this sort of term, or at least that translation, back when I was in graduate school working on this particular translation. It was something that I developed with Robert Buswell, my mentor who just recently retired at UCLA. This is not a term that I found in other places in his writings; he uses it differently.

Now when it comes to “continuation” (相續), I also sort of coined this translation, because the term, xiangxu in Chinese, or sangsok in Korean, is a technical term. People have translated different writings of Tanluan and have used different expressions for this term. It is used by Tanluan and Wŏnhyo to signify a connection, or series, a continuing mental absorption. What’s interesting is that Daochuo, in roughly the same period, refers to this as a kind of “samadhi.” This sense of samadhi and the mental aspect is very important. Many of the early exegetes who are writing about Pure Land materials—and I think this goes back to some of the things that Professor Jones was talking about. The early scholars, all of them, talk about this as mental but that one can also chant the name. It’s really when you get to Shandao that he seems to emphasize the vocal or the verbal aspect. Early writers tend to emphasize the mental aspect of it—and this is where faith comes in—and that one must strongly believe in a way that is not broken or interrupted. This idea really suggests a continuous, thought process that sort of strung together over time, that never breaks. – Prof. Richard D. McBride

This was, of course, something I was very primed to see when I first went to Nepal. How widespread is the belief, for example, in this age being an age of decline (S. kali yuga). It’s not voiced regularly, this idea that we’re all screwed and living in decline, although I wonder how after Covid might have affected that. All the practices, from initiation in simple Avalokitêśvara meditation when one comes of age as a person, to all the optional practices that are out there involving the assistance of Bodhisattvas. Every one of them. So, the idea expressed in the Pāli Canon that one goes off alone like a Rhinoceros doesn’t work in these rituals. You need a guru and you need to cultivate a personal connection through body, speech, and mind with a kind of enlightened mentor. That seems to be the dominant paradigm.

In terms of initiation (S. adhiṣṭhāna) and transfer of merit, these are other areas that scholars can have trouble with. Certainly, if we looked at householders across the Buddhist world—and I do this with my students all the time—householders wanting to make merit to transfer to their dead relatives, especially newly dead relatives, is common everywhere. I did an exhibition about 3 years ago on Buddhist ritual art, and we called it “Dharma and Puṇya” (Sanskrit for “merit”) and I hadn’t really awakened.

Merit is at the center of most Buddhist mentality in my experience, certainly in Tibet, certainly in the Himalayas, certainly as I see and I read the ancient Indian records. How does one transfer merit? The Abhidharma literature has to stretch to figure out how it works, but nonetheless, it doesn’t really matter what the intellectuals said about it: people believe it. When you build a monument, when you build a stupa —so much of Buddhist civilization runs on the currency of puṇya, of merit transfer, and merit-making. And, if you transfermerit, you make more merit! So, it’s a wonderful expanding franchise of merit making. – Prof. Todd Lewis

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I just wanted to add in here that this whole discussion of Other Power is often predicated on aspirations for enlightenment, or on the goals of those who want to be awakened and attain Buddhahood. They represent one group. But there are a whole lot of other people who look to the Buddha’s teaching and the Buddha’s power as Prof. Lewis talked about today. And I think that when you start bringing in transfer of merit and puṇya, there’s almost always some kind of power being exchanged and given. So, I think those of us who concentrate so much on soteriology need to expand and to look at Buddhism from a broader perspective. – Prof. Ken Tanaka

It’s not a silly question at all! The answer for Shinran, is yes. At various times, Shinran experienced his human teacher and master, Hōnen, as the emanation of Mahāsthāmaprāpta Bodhisattva and as Amitābha Buddha—but perhaps Professor Tanaka would like to add in here. – Prof. Jessica Main

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I’m wondering what the questioner meant by corporeal form. I think, as you answered Prof. Main, that would be one way. But if the questioner meant whether Amida actually appears in human form (S. nirmāṇakāya) in the actual world in which we live, I’m not sure. I mean, there’s a whole range of ways in which we perceive Amida from the perspective of ultimate truth, as an emanation of tathātā and dharmakāya. I know that among some Pure Land Buddhists, especially in China, there is a birthday for Amida (S. Amitābha, Amitāyus; C. Amituo). But it is true that Amida is represented in most Pure Land traditions in iconic form, as statues and as pictures in a human or anthropomorphic form. – Prof. Ken Tanaka

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One place where Amitābha seems to appear corporeally, fairly regularly, is when you’re on your deathbed, and he arrives to come get you (C. laiying, J. raigō 來迎). People actually see him coming. As a physical manifestation, it’s accompanied by visuals, sweet fragrances, sounds of music—all the senses are stimulated, when Amitābha comes to get the person who’s about to go to the Pure Land. So I’d say that’s pretty corporeal. – Prof. Charles B. Jones

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I want to add that with Shin Buddhism there’s a tendency not to be too attached to the human form. On the Buddhist altar you have three forms of Amida: a statue, a painting, and a name. The one that is most emphasized is the name, Namu Amida Butsu. According to Wŏnhyo, focus on the name reduces our attachment to Amida in human form, because Amida is beyond human form. – Prof. Ken Tanaka

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In some modern Buddhist traditions, like Won Buddhism, they only use the circle form (K. irwon sang 一圓相) and have tried to get rid of all other buddhas except for Śākyamuni. One thing that might be confusing the listeners is how mainstream East Asian traditions, when we’re thinking about China, Korea, and Japan tend to understand the three bodies. The representation of the dharma body (S. dharmakāya) is Vairocana Buddha, the representation of the reward body (S. saṃbhogakāya) is Amitābha Buddha, and the representation of the transformation body (S. nirmāṇakāya) is Śākyamuni Buddha. However, my understanding of Shinran, is that he equates Amitābha Buddha and the dharmakāya, which makes Amitābha analogous to the universe—the universe as it is that we’re all a part of. Is that what you understand, Prof. Tanaka? – Prof. Richard D. McBride

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No, Shinran does not regard Amitābha as dharmakāya but as saṃbhogakāya. Shinran is clear that Amida Buddha emanates from the dharmakāya; tathātā dharmakāya is the ultimate reality from which Amida appeared and took form. He’s clear on that. – Prof. Ken Tanaka

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In terms of chanting the name of Amitābha Buddha in Korean Buddhism, it is important to note that there was never any independent Pure Land tradition. My experience when visiting temples in China, particularly in the North, is that everybody chants “Namo Amituofo” and this is one of the interesting differences. In East Asia or in China, and in Korea Pure Land, the worship of Amitābha, devotion to Amitābha, is something that’s very widespread and it’s part of the mainstream practice, the practice tradition that people are doing.

And when it comes to Buddhist spells, and this gets back to some of the things that Prof. Lewis was talking about, the Pañcarakṣā is a great example that’s not well known. I’ve read Prof. Lewis’ book, and it’s been inspirational, because in Korea they have a text called the “Five Great Mantras” (K. Odae chinŏn). It’s not exactly the same as the Pañcarakṣā, but they have these spells. Most of them are associated with Avalokiteshvara, but clearly people are chanting these spells and these were important parts of their lives.

Typically in Western scholarship on Other Power, it’s usually been associated with Amitābha. Buddhist canonical texts are full of dhāraṇī, mantra, and spells, well beyond those connected to Amitābha. It’s interesting that the texts Buddhist monastics and laypeople use are often different from the ones that are in the ‘canon’ as scholars imagine it. There’s are teachings and mantra that are passed down from master to disciple, used by people in the tradition, whether they’re monastic or lay, to address the needs of people. They draw pieces and parts that might be in the canon, but clearly there are things that are being published for use by ordinary Buddhists. – Prof. Richard D. McBride

I wouldn’t go so far as to say that the idea of human insufficiency was taken that far by Shandao. I don’t think he had the view that human beings are ‘depraved.’ As a Chinese Buddhist, he probably had recourse to both Other Power and self power, indicating a belief in the capacity of some to reach emacipation. But the level, the state of non-retrogression—something that Prof. McBride emphasized—is something to keep in mind. In the grand scheme of things, the aim for most people regarding their ordinary lives in this world, this life, was obviously not birth in the Pure Land. Although some people say Pure Land is ‘here and now,’ traditionally Pure Land is after death. But what was available to people was the level of non-retrogression (S. avaivartika; J. futai 不退). And that level was what Shinran was aiming for, and shinjin realization and trusting is exactly that. It is a level of non-retrogression. – Prof. Ken Tanaka

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I think the Tantric tradition is still very alive and well, and although the mountain is steep one can, with the help of a tantric master, still succeed in the spiritual quest. I think that the end result of Vajrayāna Buddhism dominating Newar and Tibetan society is a different historical arc and endpoint, compared to what we have in East Asia. – Prof. Todd Lewis

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For the Korean tradition, both self power and Other Power are there, and the tradition that became dominant held that all beings possess tathāgata-garbha, and the idea of the icchantika, one who is completely lost and unable to achieve liberation—I don’t think that Korean thinkers saw themselves as completely lost. Now, whether lay people thought that, that might be another story, but this is why the rich ritual tradition, of which chanting the name of Amitabha is part, is so important: repentance rituals, rituals invoking mantras and dhāraṇīs, and all these sorts of things. This tradition gave people things to hold on to and these have continued from early times. They are even and going through a sort of a revival in contemporary Korean Buddhism. – Prof. Richard D. McBride

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In surveying the literature, icchantika seems to function mostly as a bad name that you call somebody that you’re disagreeing with. But there’s a bigger issue here. Probably the least popular teaching that Buddhism ever came up with was that it takes three incalculable eons to achieve full liberation, and the 1,000 lifetimes that the Buddha himself spent climbing that mountain. Nobody wanted to hear that. Absolutely nobody. And the whole history of Buddhism is looking for workarounds to kind of get to the goal a lot faster. So, in Chan Buddhism, the way you deal with it is to say “well, you’re already there, actually, you just don’t realize it”. And that’s the only problem you have to overcome. In Esoteric Buddhism, you say “well, with the right adhiṣṭhāna and absorbing the essence of the guru, or whatever you do, you hot wire the whole process of sokushin jōbutsu 即身成仏, you ‘become a Buddha in this very body’”. In a way, Pure land is the only tradition that really came clean that yes, it does take a long time and lots of effort. What it promised was not a shortcut to the goal, but a perfect place to go to pursue it with no distractions, with a Buddha right there to teach you. But Pure Land still said, if you’re born at the lowest level of the low, you’re going to be there for a really really long time. Still, at least you’re assured of finally making it. So, of all the traditions, Pure Land is one that really kind of held on to the difficult and long path to enlightenment. It’s really hard, and it’s going to take a long time. But don’t worry, we’ve got a good place for you to go do it. – Prof. Charles B. Jones